Muscular dystrophy (MD) refers to a heterogeneous group of inherited disorders, characterized clinically by progressive degeneration of skeletal muscle fibers leading to muscle weakness and wasting of varying severity. Some forms of muscular dystrophy are seen in infancy or childhood while others may not appear until middle age or later. Most of the forms of MD are multi-system disorders with …

Biochemically, bone is composed of inorganic elements (65%) and organic elements (35%).
A. Inorganic component: Mineral “calcium hydroxyapatite [10Ca:6(PO4):(OH)3]”. Bone that is unmineralized is known as “osteid”.
B. Organic component: Bone cells and matrix proteins
a. Bone forming cells:
i. Osteoprogenitor cells:
- pluripotent mesenchymal stem cell
- present in the inner portion of the periosteum, in the endosteum, and in the central canal of compact bone
- stimulated by TGFβ for differentiation …

Adaptations are reversible changes in the number, size, phenotype, metabolic activity or functions of cells in response to the changes in the environment. The types of cellular adaptations are:
1. Hypertrophy: Hypertropthy refers to an increase in the size of cells, resulting in an increase in the size of the organ.
a. No new cells are formed; just larger cells enlarged by increased amount …